Boeing Vs. Airbus

Executive summary This report was commissioned to show us the present in the airline business, what Is the different between Airbus and Boeing Co and after global economic crisis, what Is their policy responses. The research draws attention to the fact that many airplane companies stood at the brink of bankruptcy. On the other hand, many emerging markets such as China and India have huge potential In the aircraft Industry. Further investigations reveal that low cost airline become more important than ever before.Moreover, Airbus already pushed AWAY which one is the largest passenger aircraft. AWAY can help airplane companies improve their profit. It still helped Airbus captured market share. On the other hand, Boeing still pushed some high efficient aircrafts such as 747-8 that can follow the market trend. What is more, companies both pay attention to the Asian market. Further investigations reveal that airline business still has lots of chances in the future and fuel-efficient airpl ane will be most popular in the world.It is recommended: Add some â€Å"standing† seats In the airplane. Improve the resources utilization rate Table of Contents Introduction Nowadays, because of the global economic crisis, many airplane companies stood at he brink of bankruptcy. On the other hand, the aircraft manufacturers still will change their strategy. There are two main aircraft manufacturers in the world. One is the Boeing which comes from America and another one is Airbus which comes from France. 747-8 and AWAY which come from Boeing and Airbus Co. Tooth use the high technology In order to saving energy. In this report It will Introduce some things about the airplane business such as situation, problem and opportunity. And you will have a general Idea about both companies and their products. This Is why I write this report. Industry background In the aircraft industry, Air travel remains a large and growing industry. In the past decade, air travel has grown by 7% per year. Travel for both business and leisure purposes grew strongly worldwide. Scheduled airlines carried 1. 5 billion passengers last year.In Europe and North America, where the air travel market is already highly developed, slower growth of 4%-6% is expected. Air travel for the region has been rising by up to 9% a year and is forecast to continue to grow rapidly, although the Asian financial crisis In 1997 and 1998 will put the brakes on growth for a year or two. In terms of total passenger trips, however, the mall alarm travel markets of the future will continue to be In and between Europe, North America and Asia. (The allure industry, 2012) Let us see this picture first. Asia.There are only 80 Airlines and 1800 Airports but more than 60% people lived there. Air craft industry has good market perspective but economic benefit is not good. Because of the financial crisis, the last few years were not kind to the aircraft industry. Many airline bankruptcies are virtually certain if th e economy continues to stall. Since then, airlines have had to recognize the need for radical change to ensure heir survival and prosperity. Many have tried to cut costs aggressively, to reduce capacity growth and to increase load factors.What is more, aircraft industry includes aerospace, military aircraft, and civil-aircraft. The airline companies like Boeing and Airbus will have a competition in each field. Company background product segments Boeing is the world's leading aerospace company and the largest manufacturer of commercial Jetliners and military aircraft combined. Additionally, Boeing designs and manufactures oratorical, electronic and defense systems, missiles, satellites, launch icicles and advanced information and communication systems.The company also provides numerous military and commercial airline support services. (About us, 2013) Airbus is the world's leading aircraft manufacturer whose customer focus, commercial know-how, technological leadership and manufactur ing efficiency have propelled it to the forefront of the industry. The product include the single-aisle AWAY Family, the wide-body long-range AWAY/AWAY and the all-new next generation AWAY OXBOW Family, double-Decker AWAY Family. The company also continues to broaden its scope and product range by applying its expertise to the military market.Company, 2013) Market share The rivalry between these giants, the only manufacturers of large medium or long- moment. Even though the number of orders is higher with Airbus in 2004 but the total revenues of Boeing is still much higher than that of Airbus. However, Boeing will be able to regain its market share thanks to the new model fee, Dreamlike and making the competition more aggressive. (Boeing overtakes Airbus in annual sales race, 2012) The product The Boeing 747, the original â€Å"Jumbo Jet† with its distinctive upper-deck profile, is among the fastest airliners in service. Boeing 747-8 Family – The Boeing 747-8Interconti nental and 747-8 Freighter are the new, high-capacity sass that offers airlines the lowest operating costs and best economics of any large passenger or freighter airplane in its class – while providing enhanced environmental performance. ( Boeing Commercial Airplanes, 2012) Airbus AWAY is the world's largest commercial aircraft flying today, with capacity to carry 525 passengers in a comfortable three-class configuration, and up to 853 in a single-class configuration that provides wider seats than its competitor. The AWAY is the ideal solution to alleviate traffic congestion at busy airports.AWAY, 2013) Nongovernmental forces Technology Force In 2012 they successfully met key milestones such as compounding type using and Aerodynamics of the breakthrough in research and development programs that will bring to market the next generation of more fuel-efficient airplanes and accelerate the market readiness of advanced materials and environmentally progressive technologies. That c an help airplane companies to drive their profit. Natural Force Due to increasing consumption of non-renewable energy like petroleum, oil shortages and their concomitant rise of oil prices have always induced aircraft industry revolution.The fuel-efficient airplanes become most popular form all over the world. So Boeing says that its 787 Dreamlike cuts fuel use by 20%. Meanwhile, Airbus says that the AWAY is the first long-haul aircraft to consume less than three liners of fuel per passenger per 100 km. (Aviation Industry, 2012) Demographic forces business especially in the Asia. There are only 80 Airlines and 1800 Airports but more than 60% people lived there. What is more, by the development of economic some Asian countries such as China, India and Korea will have significant demands on the airline business.In other words, some airplane manufacturers like Boeing and Airbus should pay attention to the Asia market analysis and market demand. Micromanagement forces The company's supp liers Boeing has strong international operations with customers in around 145 countries, employees in more than 60 countries. Boeing enjoys the ownership of a brand with good and far reaching awareness on a global scale. Boeing is also a 50-50 partner with Lockheed Martin in the United Space alliance. These strong company's suppliers can help. Boeing to be a internationalization company. (The Boeing company, 2012)Airbus also has a global company's suppliers. For example, Toulouse also became home to Airbus' initial assembly line for the AWAY Family, another final assembly line opened in 2008 at Tannin, China – the first such facility for Airbus to be located outside of Europe and AWAY Family production across the final assembly lines is assigned as follows: Toulouse builds Ass; Hamburg has responsibility for the AWAY, AWAY, AWAY and AWAY; Tannin assembles Ass and Ass; and the new U. S. Facility will produce ASS, ASS and ASS. (FINAL ASSEMBLY AND TESTS, 2013) The company's vari ous publics Social factorAnti-US feeling feelings generated by the events of the past two years had adversely impacted on Boeing's sales, especially in West Asia, which is a lucrative market for the industry. And then the Airbus Co. Will raise the market competitiveness. Economic factor Aircraft manufacturers rely heavily on subsidies. Recently, Boeing and Airbus are on the debate of unfair subsidies. Likelihood of increasing fuel costs, congestion and other environmental restrictions, as well as the prospect of higher security and insurance costs to reflect the risk of terrorism.The fuel cost is increasing in the future. International Air Transport Association estimated that airlines' fuel costs would rise by 31% in 2005. DATA, which represents 95% of the world's airlines, also Political factor Policy and regulatory decisions by governments can also have a dramatic impact on the demand for civil transport aircraft. The United States Government and its Federal Aviation Administratio n (FAA) are particularly influential in this regard since they oversee the largest air transport market in the world.Similarly, the deregulation of European airlines, already begun in the early sass, holds the promise of expanded market prospects for smaller regional Jets. Boeing Co, 2012) The company's competitors We all know that it is the duopoly in the Boeing-Airbus market. Given their multiple successes, it is not surprising that Airbus and Boeing have a number of competition factors driving their innovations. They often compare their products. For example, Boeing claims the 747-81 to be over 10% lighter per seat with a trip-cost reduction of 21% and a seat-mile cost reduction of more than 6%, compared to the AWAY.And Airbus claims the AWAY to have 8% less fuel consumption per passenger than the 747-81 and emphasis the longer range of the AWAY while using up to 17% shorter unsays. (Boeing Co, 2012) SOOT analysts Boeing Co. Strength: it has a global supply chain that can help it to realize the resource rational distribution in the world. And then America government increased the government subsidies in order to encourage them to develop the advance technology. There are intense competition between Boeing and Airbus. It is benefit for each of them to have the best development trend.Broad product line that covers most major market niches development Weaknesses: Anti-US feeling feelings generated by the events of the past two years had adversely impacted on Boeing's sales. And then international Air Transport Association estimated that airlines' fuel costs would rise by 31% in 2005. That's forced many businesses to opt for smaller order airplanes volumes. Opportunities: Asia is a new market about the airline business, Airbus can sell more airplanes than ever before at that market. Threats: airline business was hit hard by the global economic downturn, with most business losing much trade.Nowadays fuel-efficient airplanes are more popular in the world, but Boe ing lags behind Airbus. Airbus Co. Distribution in the world. Because of the anti-American sentiment, Airbus Co. Can ease the market competitiveness. And then Europe government increased the technology. There are intense competition between Boeing and Airbus. It is benefit for each of them to have the best development trend. Broad product line that covers most major market niches development Weaknesses: International Air Transport Association estimated that airlines' fuel costs would rise by 31% in 2005.That's forced many businesses to opt for smaller order airplanes volumes Opportunities: Airbus successfully met key milestones such as compounding type using and Aerodynamics of the breakthrough in research and development programs hat will bring to market the next generation of more fuel-efficient airplanes such as AWAY. By the rising oil price and global economic downturn, AWAY will be a good choice to save cost. And then Asia is a new market about the airline business, Airbus can sell more airplanes than ever before at that market. Business losing much trade.Market segmentation Boeing: Since economic and traffic growth rates vary by region Boeing's segmentation of its customers is done solely through geographic regions. Boeing believes that North America and Europe will continue to order the most airplanes with their auteur economies. It believes that airplane traffic within Asia pacific will increase by six per cent annually over the next twenty years and that the market share of flying within Latin America will increase from two per cent to four per cent. It is due to these differences in global air travel that Boeing uses Geography as its segmentation tool. Boeing Company, 2013) what is more, the segment's geographic region is a function of the allocation of resources on demand. For example, in America and Europe, Boeing can predict an increase in the demand for regional Jets as air revelers in these regions are demanding non-stop flights on thinner route s, in China, Boeing can predict an increase in their routes and so on. Airbus: its market segmentation is like the Boeing's which is the segment's geographic region. They still use the different plans in different regions.For example, Airbus pays attention to the carbon-efficient airplane like AWAY. They want to use it to increase the Asian market share, and they also want to increase the branch line to improve efficiency in the American and European market. Target markets Name: Airbus Company AWAY Boeing Company 747-8 Characteristic: long flight normal airlines/ government budget airlines/ government/ normal airlines/ personal using all over the world few in the America all over the world but few in Europe Luxury trip normal trip emerging market developed market new customer regular customer Let us see this table.It shows the characteristic of the target market in both companies. We will see that A 380 fits the high-end market, and Boeing 747-8 is a multi-role aircraft. What is mor e, Boeing 747-8 which is a classical aircraft can have lots of the regular customers. They Just need to keep its feature. On the other hand, because of the global economic crisis, more and more airlines which come from the emerging market want to long distance and high capacity. By this way, it can help them to save cost. At this time, Airbus Co got the AWAY.And then, AWAY has a huge body that can offer enough space to build some luxury facilities such as fitness, bar and bedroom. It can help filling in the luxury trip blank. Targeting strategy Airbus and Boeing companies all use the differentiated targeting strategy, because both companies are all global companies and they make the different plan in different place. It is better than undifferentiated and concentrated that they can totally control the market. For example, in Asian market, Boeing will recommend the 747-81 which is the fuel-efficient and huge airplane.But in the American and Europe Market, it will focus on showing the 777 which is the new technology and efficient airplane. On the other hand, AWAY which comes from Airbus Co. Is the key recommendation to some developing countries like China, India and Brazil. What is more, some other size of the Airbus airplanes such as AWAY and AWAY still will recommend to the developed countries like America and England. Because some emerging markets like Asia and South America have a large population and huge market potential.So they will be like large and efficient airplanes. What is more, some developed market like America and Europe, they which have health airline network need to add some branch lines. So the small airplane will be popular in that market. And then let us see a form first. Airbus was never in the corsairs of Boeing. That means, they can promote product in the same place. If you want to buy an airplane, that depends on what size of airplane you like. For example, if you want pick up 500 passengers you only can hose AWAY, 450-500 passengers 747 -8 is your choice.Positioning strategy From a buyers point of view there are many criteria that apply to buying a new plane from Boeing and Airbus. The main two criteria we chosen are capacity and distance. Because airplane makers like Boeing and Airbus are quite limited. Unlike BBC, in EBB there is very rarely a mass market and Boeing and Airbus are no exception to the rule. The companies targeting is aimed mainly at its existing clients and its profit margins are squeezed by these well knowledgeable clients mainly because they homeless are professionals and know the cost of production for airplanes. Boeing Company, 2013) Short distance and low capacity Boeing: many Because Boeing has 737 Family which are particularly low capacity designed pales, incorporating seating capacities of between 110-189 seats and are also relatively short distance planes. It fits the distance and efficient trip. Because of the global economic crisis, many airplane companies stood at the brink of bankrupt cy. 737 is a good choice for them. Airbus: None Short distance and high capacity: None The market didn't need it. Long distance and high capacity Boeing: some fly from America to Australia without refueling.Airbus: some It is the same reason. But its product is AWAY Family. But a maximum range of its flight is shorter than 777 and 747. Very long distance and ever high capacity Boeing: None Airbus: AWAY Because Airbus wanted to increase the market share, so he focused on the long distance market. AWAY filled a hole in the market and it can popular in the high-end market. Recommendations Nowadays, many airplane companies stood at the brink of bankruptcy. So saving money is the first demand. Aircraft manufacturers also launched some high efficient airplane like 747-8 and AWAY.I think that we already cannot change much about outside but we can change some about inside. For example, all customers sit in the airplane, but we can change the seat design like â€Å"standing† seat. Wha t is more, they also can improve the resources utilization rate in order to decrease the price of the airplane. That can help the airline companies to increase the profit. And then Aircraft manufacturers will have a new segment about the Recommendations. Reference list: 1. The airline industry. (2012). The airline industry. Retrieved 2012, From: http:// gag. Stanford. Du/AAA/intro/airlessness's. HTML 2. About us. (2013). Boeing official website. Retrieved 2013, From: http:// www. Boeing. Com/Boeing/companionways/about/index. Page? 3. Company. (2013). Airbus official website. Retrieved 2013. From: http://www. Airbus. Com/company/ 4. Boeing overtakes Airbus in annual sales race. (2012). Reuters. Retrieved 2012, From: http://www. Reuters. Com/article/2013/01117/us-airbus-orders- idUSBRE90GOCF20130117 5. Boeing commercial Airplanes. (2012). Boeing official website. Retrieved 2012 From: http://www. Boeing. Com/assets/PDF/commercial/PDF/ BCC_backgrounder. UDF 6. AWAY. (2013).Airbus offici al website. Retrieved 2013 From: http://www. Airbus. Com/aircraftman's/evisceration's/a380familyncontentId= BIBB TABLE:ATTontent; 7BAviation Industry. (2012). QflnEquivalencetrieved 2012 From: http://www. qfinCaffeinem/Comtor-profiles/aviation 8. Boeing Co. (2012). Boeing official website. Retrieved 2012 From: http:// www. boeiBoeingm/ComiBoeing (FINAL ASSEMBLY AND TESTS. (2013). Airbus official website. Retrieved 2013 From: http://www. airbAirbusm/Company/aircraft-manufacture/how-is-an-aircraft-built/final- assembly-and-tests/ 10. Boeing Co. (2012). Boeing official website.Retrieved 2012 From: http://www. boeiBoeingm/ComiBoeing. Boeing Co. (2012). Boeing official website. Retrieved 2012 From: http:// 13. Boeing Company. (2013). 123HLempeltrieved 2013 From: http://www. 123hLempelm/Comw. asp?Asp=8Id96 14. BoniBonitoKolbKola012). Undifferentiated, Concentrated, and Differentiated Targeting Strategies. Retrieved 2012 From: http:// www. globGlobalizesm/Comerence/47105/203279/undifferent iated-concentrated-and- differentiated-targeting-strategies 15. Boeing Company. (2013). 123HLempeltrieved 2013 From: http://www. 123hLempelm/Comw. asp?Asp=8Id96

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Supply and Demand Analytical Paper - Assignment Example Everybody knows that Apple compete with quality for it to remarkably set a highly competitive price for its product offerings. In the case of Apple, competitive price does not necessarily mean to be lower prices compared to its competitors’. In fact, in most of the time, it is higher than the others. However, it is clear that there is an ongoing high demand for Apple’s iPhone products despite its comparatively higher price than the competitors’ offerings’. The law of demand states that the price is highly associated with the number of quantity demanded and vice versa. This means that there will be more quantity demanded for a certain offering if the price goes down or as the price goes down, more quantity for the product will be demanded. As stated in Figure 1, the law of demand simply states that price has a linear relationship with the number of quantity demanded. However, knowing that Apple sells iPhone products at a price higher than its competitors’, considering a staggering increase of its revenue and profit, is an indication of increasing demand for its product offerings. On the other hand, there is a significant indication that the use of mobile phones has become a reality or part of life. In Europe alone, there was an ongoing perception that there will be no enough available frequency to satisfy the demand for talking, texting and surfing the Net on mobile phones (O’Brien). The broadcast spectrum is simply becoming a limited commodity for as long as more users are inclined to buy mobile phones and use them for either talking, texting or surfing the Net. As a result, there is no question as to why there is an increasing demand for Apple’s iPhone even if it was set at a higher price. Mobile phones, particularly smart phones, are not just wants but are becoming strong basic commodities. Apple has continued innovation of products that have improved functionalities that are known to use wider broadcast spectrums. In this case,

Islam in Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Islam in Europe - Essay Example The chief among them is that Islamic law differs from the laws of ‘first world’ countries of Europe, and that Islam dominates lifestyle and culture of millions of Muslims in Europe (Roald, 2001, p 295- 296). Islam: Family Law The Islamic family law does not support the ‘liberal -minded ‘European family law. In European countries family laws support step families, unmarried spouse, nuclear families, free mixing of both the sexes, and above all, the equality of sexes. Conventional Islamic law holds male members of a family to be superior compared to their female counterparts. More importance is given to them and they also hold decision making power. Also, Islam propagates the doctrine of large family with many members (BuChler, 2013, p 100). Many orthodox Muslim families in Europe still abide by the Islamic family law which separates the rules and rights of women from men. However, in European countries like Bulgaria, modern age Muslim families are denouncing s ecularism (Ghodsee, 2009, p 5). The newer generations of Muslims are more in support of ‘multiculturalism’ and ‘tolerance’ policies that are held by European nations. They are not much affected by the fact that predominantly Islamic nations like Egypt has stressed CEDAW, 15th and 16th article denying formal equality of rules and right among men and women. In other words, Muslims in Europe are trying to redefine their identity outside the realm of Islam (BuChler, 2013, p 100). Conventions and Practices: With change of perspectives and outlooks, social practices are also changing among Islamic families. As in England one can find that marriages are still held through the ‘nikah’ ceremony. It is not recognized by the English court of law. With the changing of perspectives, around two-thirds of Muslim couples are marrying again to enjoy the protection of English legal systems. Also, they are renouncing pluralism of marriages as it is not recognized . They are holding their religious roots on one hand and on the other adopting the newer form. This scenario can be found all over Europe (BuChler, 2013, p 77). ‘Talaq’, another important provision of Islamic family law is â€Å"taken into consideration in gender- neutral divorce law and legal practice†. Also, in Europe, no direct legal measures taken against polygamy as because European courts do not hold polygamy as an unlawful act (BuChler, 2013, p 100). Though from time to time social issues have been raised about use of head- covering or hijab, many Muslim women still continue to wear them as a part of their religious convention. Islam: Law Council In European countries, Muslims have their own quasi- judicial institutions. These institutions are basically the shari?ah law councils which impart judgment to large sections of Muslim communities in Europe, as most Muslims in Europe do not recognize the authority and legitimacy of any other legal system. Thus the y turn up to these councils mostly with problems regarding family matters. The law councils have a separate code of law and adopt unconventional modes of settling disputes, formulated according to legal norms of Islam. One such country is England where the unofficial yet autonomous shari?ah courts serve millions of Muslims (BuChler, 2013, p 76-77). Durham,  Kirkham,  & Torfs (2012, p 6) insist that from the view point of European Courts, no discrimination is made between Muslims and non- Muslim subjects, though their ways of resolving or

Maus essay Essay Example for Free

Maus essay Essay I Maus by Art spiegelman shows imagery. It resembles the quote from Hitler â€Å"The Jews are undoubtedly a race, but they are not human†, and shows that the different groups of people have essential characteristics that are represented by the animals they are portrayed as in the book. This just shows how low Germans are towards the Jews. In the comic book of Maus, Vladek tells some horrible stories of when he was in the holocaust. Artie (his son) is very interested in the way the holocaust was and how his father and gone through it when he was younger. In one of the clips it shows Vladek‘s number that he was given to be represented by instead of his name. Some of his stories were of how they would just kill any random person, even if they had their papers. The Germans wanted to become superior in every way they possibly can. The many different ways of representing the â€Å"animals’ towards people are the way people may act or themselves. For instance the pigs represented as the polish, the mouse are represented as the Jewish. The animals that are shown for them are based on themselves and their looks. If you had Blonde hair and blue eyes, brown hair brown eyes were their perfect race. Even though the book was black and white in reality you can see the colors everywhere. The stories about the way the woman and children were treated would make you throw up. If a child was crying or wouldn’t be quiet they would get thrown against the wall and have their skulls broken. The women were treated just like men having to carry around heavy items and get beat just the same. Men, children and woman should not be treated the same when it comes to work or punishments. In conclusion the holocausts were the roughest of the times. Too many people were killed for no reason at all. I’ve proved innocent people should not be murdered for no reason at all.

Mekong River Upstream Privileges And Downstream Threat Environmental Sciences Essay

Mekong River Upstream Privileges And Downstream Threat Environmental Sciences Essay The Mekong River (Langcang Jiang) is located in Southeast Asia, and it is considered as the seventh largest river in the world in terms of discharge and the tenth longest river in terms of length. Its origin is at Tibet Plateau, Yunnan Province, China, then flowing 4200 kilometers through Myanmar, Laos PDR, Thailand, Cambodia, and finally through the extensive delta in Vietnam into South China Sea. The Mekong basin contains full of natural resources including fishes and other aquatic diversities living in that region. The body of river is divided into two parts. First, the upstream part includes its origin in Tibet Plateau belongs to China and Myanmar and the downstream part is belonging to Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The study reported that the Mekong River would benefit to hydropower production, expansion of irrigated land, reduction of the threat of flooding in the delta region, natural resources and the extension of navigability of the river as far as northern Laos. Th e catchment is resource rich and is represented as largely under-utilized. It also lies with a geopolitical region that benefit to riparian states in terms of politic, economic and environment development. Given this, the Mekong stands out as one of Southeast Asias most pressing and large scale resource and environmental management concerns. Moreover, the riparian states importantly depend on the Mekong River due to its abundance of resources; as a result, they ultimately formed a committee to maintain Mekong river regime. That is Mekong Committee in 1957. From this time, the principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedure specifically concerns with development of Mekongs resource have been maintained and changed through this regime. Inter-state conflict vis-à  -vis the use of the Mekong Rivers water resources emerged for the first time in the early 1990s. The dispute was employed as leverage in a disagreement between Thailand and Vietnam over the fair and equitable utilizat ion of the Mekongs water resources. At a deeper level, it reflected broader concern regarding strategic shifts throughout Southeast Asia and in Thai-Vietnamese relation following the peaceful conclusion of the cold war. The device of the committee is to coordinate the lower Mekong basin (Mekong Committee) and designed to facilitate the use of the Mekongs resource since 1957. In 1995, a new arrangement was established that Mekong River Commission (MRC) was renewed to deal with the management or the issues of sovereignty, non-interference and condition of interdependent. The Mekong River Commission consists of the lower basin countries including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Moreover, among the riparian states of Mekong basin, China is the most upstream country and a political and economic superpower in the region. China has often been considered to exhibit unilateral behavior toward the lower Mekong River riparian. MRC is not the only institution in the Mekong Basin, many oth er mechanisms such as the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) which includes China as a major partner was agreed to establish in 1992. The sub-region is covering 2.30 million square kilometers and feeds around 250 million head of total population. There are four international rivers within this sub-region, namely, the Greater Mekong River, Irrawady River, Yuanjiang-Honghe (Red) River and Nujiang-Salween River. All of the four rivers flow from Yunnan Province into respective Mainland Southeast Asian Countries. Among them, the three rivers of Mekong, Irrawady and Yuanjiang-Honghe are with great potentials for water transport development. These rivers could become water passage and transport network connecting Chinas Yunnan Province with the five Mainland Southeast Asian countries by joint cooperation and development. In following section, I will explain the main issue in Mekong River Basin Upstream privilege, downstream threat, and some mechanisms to deal with this complex issue. Upstream Threat The upstream countries are considered as China, Myanmar and Lao PDR in Mekong River Basin. They claim resources and development in their occupied areas in upper Mekong Basin. As a matter of fact, most of the riparian states try to extract as much as benefits as they can such as dam development, hydro power plan, energy project and navigation or passageway since the Mekong River is regarded as one of the mainly rich in resources for those purposes. Therefore, the country put much attention on development in Mekong Region. Of course, among the upstream states and all the riparian countries, China emerges as the most powerful state, and it is also the super power in the world in term of economy and more likely in the future the military super power. The industrialization of Chinas economy from agriculture base, it needs many factors to improve its economy such as electricity as the main part, raw materials, transportation, tradeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Moreover, as a strong economy in Mekong reg ion, China acts unilaterally in relation to development of dam. China adopted two approaches to ASEAN countries especially in Mekong River Basin. Beside this, it projected many plans for dam development to transfer energy to Chinese industries consumption and navigation. The first approach is non-cooperation, meaning it develops its own plans by itself without negotiation with other sovereign countries in Mekong River region. However, the downstream see it as a threat because the development might change the natural flow of river. Sometimes, it may cause the serious flood in rainy season and drought in dry season in the lower countries such as Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. Therefore, the downstream countries try to get China in negotiation in order to make better use of Mekong River resource and sustainable development in that area. In 1970, Chinese planners began planning a scheme of the mainstream of upper Mekong in Yunnan involving 7-8 dams which can produce the capacity of 15, 550 KW or 17% of Chinas project on power demands (Pech SokhemKengo Sunada, 2008). The second approach is that China has implemented the active engagement with Mekong river shareholders as well as the ASEAN members. It sees the advantages of cooperating with ASEAN countries particularly the downstream countries including Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. In November 2001, Chinese Premier Zhu Rong Ji provided $5 millon for major shoals, rapids, and reefs along the 331 Km Mekong River stretch from China-Myanmar border to Luang Prabang. In addition, China provided fund as well as the technical assistance to downstream for dam development or hydro power plan. Therefore, China plays an active role in investment in regional energy trade in downstream countries. In 2005, Chinese Premier, Wen Jia Bao, promised at 2nd GMS summit, China would like to cooperate with other Mekong members for future energy development and dam plans, and he also laid out Chinas plan for Common prosperity with each other in Mekong region. It tries to foster mutual trust, treat each other with sinc erity to calm down the downstream countries perception to China. All in all, even though China has cooperatively with other upstream and downstream countries, it still serves as China interest in term economy and power. The main threats to downstream are as following (i) dredging of river bed in the upper Langcang Mekong for improving the commercial navigation; (ii) large scale dam plans in Yunnan, China and ambitious dam development; (iii) Cambodias concern over flooding from the flood control measures along Vietnam -Cambodia border; and (iv) Vietnams grave concern over flooding and dry season low flow in the Mekong Delta due to the upstream development and so on. Downstream Impact Previous section, I have mentioned the Chinas acting in international relation with ASEAN states especially in Mekong River Basin. China usually use it sole power to develop many dam projects in order to develop its economy since it now needs much electricity for factories and water to connect from Yunnan province to South East Asia countries. Therefore, China makes change the natural flow of water in Mekong river basin. On the other side, downstream countries including Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam are affected by hydropower plant in Mekong basin. Particularly the most affected ones are Cambodia and Vietnam for they are located in lowest part of Mekong River. However, I would like to focus on overall threat to downstream states and effect of water management in Cambodia as a result of upstream unilaterally adopted project on those areas in their country. Actually, countries in downstream states are living in the complex ecosystem. As the Mekong River serves water resources and natural resources and benefit to roughly 60 million people, the people are accordingly affected by eight large dams in Yunnan province, China. More importantly, most of the dam projects of China do not have environmental impact assessment. Sometimes, the negative impacts do not need hundred years to see the environmental deterioration. For instance, hydropower project, Xiaowan, was started in December 2001 and expected to finish in 2012. This dam development is at 292 meter height and considered as the highest dam project in the world; however, the impact on Lao PDR is that it will meet flood in the dry season. Another case in Vietnam, it will cause the serious flooding in Southern part of province. Moreover, the large dam project not only causes the flooding in downstream countries, but also they many incur other crises including ecosystem, aquatic diversities, climate change, uncontrollable flooding, food scarcity, prolong floods and droughts, decrease sedimentation biodivers ities, deforestation, land clearance. Now lets look at some particular impact as following: Destruction of fish and fisheries: flooded in dry season will seriously damage the fish-feeding. Impact on agriculture: 80% of rice production in lower Mekong basin depends on water, silt, nutrient provided by seasonal flooding of Mekong. Flood in dry season will erode and decrease sediment and it affects long-term agricultural yield. IV. Cambodia Challenge: Water Management in Cambodia After getting familiar with upstream and downstream problem, I will elaborate more on Cambodia case. Cambodia is located in downstream countries among riparian states in Mekong River Basin. This location can either give opportunities for Cambodia or threaten the water management in Cambodia. In fact, 85% of agricultural activities in Cambodia, depends on Mekong River flowing from upper stream countries. The benefits which Cambodia can get are that due to potential situation it can absorb many resources such as fish and other aquatic biodiversities that move from upper stream because of changing of water management in those countries. Prior to explaining the water system and challenges that Cambodia face, I would like to describe about brief background of Cambodia. Cambodia is situation in South East Asia and located in latitude between 10o and 15o in North and Longitude between 102o and 108o in East. It covers roughly 181,035 km2 in territory and has total population around 14 million people dispersed in 24 province and 4 cities. The people mostly gather in city of Phnom Penh due to the fact that it is the economic, politic, cultural city of Cambodia. Among total population, 71% are farmers, 21% are employed in service sector and 8% works for industrial sector. Since most of population are doing agricultural activities; therefore, it needs high and systematic water supply to operate this field. The question is that where can Cambodia access the water for supplying its agricultural activities. In fact, Cambodia can access the water from two main sources such as from Mekong River and Great Lake ( Tonle Sap) located in center of the country. During the wet season, water will flood the surrounding areas and especially the water supply from Mekong River Delta and Tonle Sap all in all will direct to Great Lake; as a result, it will lead to the flood. Whenever there is a flood, it will bring the tilt and nutrition to the soil which was flood; therefore, it is useful for agriculture and cultivation. In addition, due to the fact that Cambodia highly depends on water supply from Mekong River; the changes in water flow in Mekong River Basin will accordingly damage the agricultural and cultivating area in Lower Mekong River especially in Cambodia since the 85% of the flow of river is situated in Cambodia. Moreover, there are many causes that can damage to the water supply in Cambodia. First of all, the upper stream countries such as China, Myanmar and Lao PDR developed 14 hydropower plans which can get generate the capacity of 222,600 MW. Since the Upper stream countries developing their dam project particularly in China, it may block the flow the water to run the engine to produce the fulfill the dam process; there will incur irregular flow of water; as a result, the fish resources will decrease due to alternation of ecosystem. Moreover, people will usually depend on fisheries will lack of fish, therefore, their income will accordingly lower. Furthermore, in mid-2006 downstream states agreed to develop 11 dam projects comprising of 2 in Lao PDR, 2 for Thailand, and 2 for Cambodia. As a result of the developing the plans for dam projects for hydropower plans to generate the electricity for local consumption, it is seriously affects the livelihood in Mekong river. That can reduce the quantity of fish supply particular in Cambodia. All in all, due to the plan of dam projects in both of upper and lower stream in Mekong River Basin, the suffer will likely affect the livelihood and species. V. Solution to the problem: Suggestion to the use of GMS As I have mentioned in the previous section about the challenges of downstream of Mekong Basin especially Cambodia which is one of the large stake country in Mekong River Basin, in this section, I will introduce some proposed solutions which suggested by countries in Mekong River as well as external superpower countries call for water protection since the world will be facing the water security in the future if there are not enough mechanisms to manage it. Therefore, in order to make sustainable consumption of Mekong River, every involving state has responsibility to cooperatively work with all the members in Greater Mekong River. If there are not suitable methods or system to control the effective use of Mekong River, it may be in one day damaged, and it will cause serious catastrophe among riparian states particularly downstream countries namely Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam such as flooding in rain season and disastrous drought in dry season in low areas of Mekong Basin. In order to cope with this problem, there are many mechanisms to deal with this issue ranging from strengthening of the role of Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) to the newly established of Lower Mekong Initiative (LMI). In 1992, the concept of Greater Mekong Sub-region was proposed by Asian development bank (ADB) for promoting all involvement of all member states in Mekong River including China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. This regional cooperation is partitioned to promote building relationship among riparian states of Mekong River for express idea platform, negotiation platform, and sharing information platform. It facilitates the cross-boundary negotiation since every member has to share the idea when they want to develop the plant in Mekong Basin. If there is not information sharing from each state; therefore, the state will cause damage of water usage in Mekong River as the fisheries stock availability inside the Mekong River. To this instance, the cooperation is very useful and necessary because state can receive information and take action in prevent the crisis from happening. Thats why it is deemed necessary to strengthen the role of GMS. Beside this, the GMS can includ e all member states especially China which is the most upper stream of the basin since China formerly act unilaterally on its dam projects and power plants in upper stream, which can cause serious damage to lower stream of water use and fisheries stock. Moreover, the effective mechanisms are being used for dealing with any kinds of issue regarding the Mekong River. In brief, we will see the sharing information in regional cooperation will help strengthen the make use of water as well as the resources in Mekong River too. Following the establishment of regional cooperation, Greater Mekong Sub-region, the states in low basin also try to build firm relationship for effective use of the river and help each other for any necessary skill and ability building. In 1995, the states such as Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam initiated the Mekong River Commission (MRC) for regional economic cooperation. In the MRC, each member tries to work together for better use in Mekong River. Moreover, they conduct the meeting every year in order to share the idea and information in term of power plant development and other dam projects that may affect the water flow to lower delta of the river. Furthermore, each member every year meet each other to strengthen more relationship and study on dam project from upper level to lower level of Mekong River. MRC is very useful in term of regional cooperation since 1995 because the states regard as an effective commission for sharing idea in term of water use in the basin. Moreover, in 2009, the Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called for creating the Lower Mekong Initiative (LMI) in Waters Day. This creation aims at promoting more tied relationship among member states. There has been much regional cooperation in order to make better use and sustainable development of water and resource in the Mekong River because if there is no maintenance or cooperative work, we will meet the crisis in the future. In conclusion, upstream states lead to many effects on downstream countries in terms of economic, politic, and environment. Therefore, downstream ones call for regional integration among riparian states along Mekong River. Moreover, Mekong River Committee plays significant role in coordinating and promoting cooperation in Mekong River Basin. Many referendums and treaties have been signed in order to ensure the sustainable use of resources and benefits. In addition, Greater Mekong River embraces China to negotiation and cooperation. We will see the role of GMS to solving the internal conflict in Mekong River.

The Definition Foster Care Social Work Essay

The Definition Foster Care Social Work Essay New World Enclopedia (2012) defines foster care as full-time substitute care of children outside their own home by people other than their biological or adoptive parents or legal guardians. According to The Adoption Foundation (2012) Foster care means placing a child in the temporary care of a family other than its own as the result of problems or challenges that are taking place within the birth family. Johnson (2004) defines Foster care as a 24-hour substitute care for children placed away from their parents or guardians and for whom the State Agency has placement and care responsibility. To summarise the Foster Care aim is to provide the opportunity to children victims of abuse and/or neglect to live in a substitute family on a temporary basis. The role of the foster parents is to give support to the child and help him to grow physically, emotionally, socially and spiritually. 3.2 History of Foster Care The Children Aid Society (2012) stated that placement of children in foster homes is a concept which goes as far back as the Old Testament, which refers to caring for dependent children as a duty under law. Early Christian church records indicate orphaned children lived with widows who were paid by the church. English Poor Laws in the 1500s allowed the placement of poor children into indentured service until they became adults. This practice was imported to the United States and was the beginning of placing children into foster homes. The most significant record of fostering was in 1853, a child was removed from a workhouse in Cheshire and placed in a foster family under the legal care of the local government. At the beginning of the 1900s only orphaned or abandoned children under the age of 11 years were fostered, and they had to have a demanding psychological profile well adjusted, obedient and physically normal. Jeune Guishard-Pine (2007) identified that in 1969 research was carried out on the foster care system and it was found that foster families required training on how to deal with the foster children and make them fill secure in the placement. 3.3 Foster care as a global concept Johnson (2005) emphasised that foster care is most likely the most widely practised form of substitute care for children world-wide, depending on the needs of the child, the culture and the system in place. According to Askeland (2006) there are many different kinds of fostering and definitions of foster care vary internationally. It can be short -term, a matter of days ,or a child whole childhood. A review of foster care in twenty-two countries found considerable diversity in the way of fostering in both defined and practised. Mannheim (2002) stated that kinship foster care, which is the most common form of fostering in African countries, is not called foster care in all countries. In Ireland for example only children placed with no relatives are said to be fostered. According to Colton William (1995) in some countries foster care is only seen as a temporary arrangement. Johnson (2005) stated that the procedures to be registered as foster parents in different countries such as United Kingdom, Australia, Uganda and South Africa are similar. In some countries foster care programme is managed either by the government or an agency, and each country has their own basic criteria that should be fulfilled, such as; being physically and mentally fit and healthy, having a room for the child ,having time to spend with the child. According to Blatt (2000), the process to be registered as foster families can take approximately six months or more. Individuals who are willing to become foster families must make their applications to the agency. A home study is conducted by a social worker to assess the capability of the applicants for taking care of a child. The assessment form is then forwarded to a panel who gives the approval. 3.4 Placement in Foster care According to (Blatt 2000; Zuravin Deponfilis 1997), children are removed from their homes to protect them from abuses. These children have suffered physical, sexual abuse, or neglect at home, before they are transferred to a secure milieu. Some children are abandoned by their parents or legal guardians, or have parents or legal guardians who are unable to take care of them because they have financial difficulties, some are alcoholics, others are irresponsible. These children are then placed into foster care until the parents or guardians are capable of taking the parental responsibility. Elisa et al (2010), states that in all foster care cases, the childs biological or adoptive parents, or other legal guardians, momentarily gives up legal custody of the child. The guardian gives up custody, but not necessarily legal guardianship. A child may be placed in foster care with the parents agreement. In a clear case of abuse or neglect, a court can order a child into foster care without the parents or guardians consent. Duncan and Shlonsky (2008) emphasizes that before any placement the foster care family is screened by the Government or agency through a psychologist or social worker that assess the foster care families under certain criteria such as emotional stability, motivation, parental skills and financial capabilities. Elisa et al (2010) states that the government provides foster families with an allocation taking in foster children. The foster parents are required to use the funds to buy the childs food, clothing, school supplies, and other incidentals. Most of the foster parents responsibilities toward the foster child are clearly set in legal documents. According to Blatt (2000), foster placements may last for a single day or several weeks; some continue for years. If the parents give up their rights permanently, or their rights to their child are severed by the court, the foster family may adopt the foster child or the child may be placed for adoption by strangers. 3.3.1 The Aim of Foster Care System According to Hayden (1999), the aim of foster care system is to protect and endorse the security of the child, while providing foster parents and biological parents with the sufficient resources and available services needed to maintain the childs healthy development. Foster care environments are proposed to be places of safety and comfort, and are monitored by several welfare agencies, representatives, and caseworkers. Personal caseworkers assigned to a foster child by the state or county are accountable for supervising the placement of the child into an appropriate foster care system or home. The National Conference of State Legislatures (2006), states that the caseworker also carries out regular visits to the foster care family home to monitor progress. Other agents involved in a childs placement into foster care may include private service providers, welfare agencies, insurance agents, psychologists, and substance abuse counselors. 3.3.2 Types of Foster Care Ambrosino et al (2008), emphasis that parents may voluntarily place children into foster care for various reasons. Such foster placements are monitored until the biological family can provide appropriate care for the child, or the biological parental rights are terminated and the child is adopted. Legal Guardianship, is a third option which can be used in cases where the child cannot be reunited with their biological family and adoption is not a suitable option. The Guardianship option most commonly occurs for older children aged 10years old onwards, who are strongly bonded to their biological parents. Geen (2003) mentions that voluntary foster care can be utilised when the parents are unable or unwilling to care of a child; a child may suffer from behavioural or psychological problems and requires specialized treatment. Involuntary foster care is applied when the child is in danger and should be removed from the family to be put in a secure place. (Blatt 2000; Bath 2010;Moe 2007) mention different types of fostering: (i) Foster family home, relative A licensed or unlicensed home of the childs relatives regarded by the state as a foster care living arrangement for the child. (ii) Foster family home, non-relative A licensed foster family home regarded by the state as a foster care living arrangement. (iii)Group home or Institution A group home is a licensed or approved home providing 24-hour care for children in a small group setting that generally has from 7 to twelve children. An Institution is a facility operated by a public or private agency and providing 24-hour care and/or treatment for children who require separation from their own homes and group living experience. These facilities may include child care institutions, residential treatment facilities, or maternity homes. Associated Problems with Foster Care System According to Mannhein (2002) stated that in the United States, placement success rate was 40% and failure rate was 60%.From previous studies carried out, Children and Family Research Center (2004), Proch Taber (1985), there are many associated problems with the foster care system that leads to the removal of the child from the foster care home such as time of placement in the foster care family, characteristics of home, foster parents characteristics and child characteristics. According to a study carried by Mannhein (2002) in the United States, placement success rate was 40% and failure rate was 60%. Fernadez and Bath (2010) states,that foster children face a number of problems both within and outside the foster care system. Foster children are more exposed to neglect, abuse, family dysfunction, poverty, and severe psychological conditions. The trauma caused to a child when removed from their home is also severe and may cause depression, anger, and confusion. Psychological conditions of abused and neglected children are required to improve when placed in foster care, however the separation from their biological parents cause traumatic effect on the child. 3.3.4 Time of Placement in Foster Care family According to Bremner Wachs ( 2010) many studies which has been carried out show that behaviour of the child is the strongest predictor of placement disruption and is one of the main reasons foster parents request removal the children from Foster Families. Newton et al (2000) confirms that children showing sign of behaviours such as disruptive, aggressive or dangerous behaviour in the foster homes are requested to be removed from Foster Families. Zandberg Van der Meulen,(2002) study show that behaviour becomes a critical issue for foster placements for children over the age of 4 years. Webb et al, (2010) states, that children are more prone to experience insecurity in the foster home during the initial phase of placement and the first six months of a placement are crucial as 70 % of removal of foster children occur within this period. According to Whittaker et al (2010) older children experience more placement instability during the initial phase compared to infants and older girls are at the highest risk of placement disruptions than boys. 3.3.5 Characteristics of the Home Berridge Cleaver, (1987) stated that children have difficulty to adapt in foster home when they are placed with other children who are roughly the same age or if they are placed in foster homes where the foster parents have children of their own. Foster Children placed with other children may feel insecure and start competing for affection and materialistic objects eventually this leads to conflicts in the foster care family. 3.3.6 Foster Parent Characteristics According to Walsh Walsh (1990) to deal with a childs problem behaviour is mostly related to the Foster Parents character and sense of understanding. Doelling and Johnson (1990) states that the other most predictive characteristics of foster parents is their goodness of fit with a child including a match temperaments and having a relationship that is described as close. Butler Charles (1999) also state that a mismatch in temperament between a foster parents who is inflexible and a child with negative mood will eventually lead to disruption. Walsh and Walsh (1990) study also shows that for a placement to be successful the foster parents should be motivated, they should accept the child, they should feel the desire to parent the child and they should be motivated by their own childhood experience. According to Fine (1993), Social Support in foster family is important to prevent placement disruption and foster parents who have good relationship with their family and friends are more likely to be successful. 3.3.7 Child Characteristics According to Children and Family Research (2004), the behaviour of a child is closely linked to placement disruptions. As stated by Lindheim Dozier (2007) foster parents do not understand the behavioural problems of the child and finally they request removal of the child from their custody. The behaviour of the child is a result of the child characteristics i.e the background of the child. Foster children are more exposed to neglect, abuse, family dysfunction, poverty, and severe psychological conditions. The trauma caused to a child when removed from their home is also severe and may cause depression, anger, and confusion. Psychological Trauma in Children Psychological trauma is a type of damage to the mind that occurs as a result of a severely distressing experience. When that trauma leads to disorders , damage possibly will involve physical changes inside the brain and to brain chemistry, which modifies the persons reation to future stress. A traumatic event involves a single experience, or an enduring or recurring event or events, that fully surmount the individuals capacity to deal with or integrate the ideas and emotions involved with that experience. The sense of being overwhelmed can be delayed by weeks, years or even decades, as the person fights back to cope with the abrupt situation. Psychological trauma can lead to serious long-term negative consequences that are often overlooked even by mental health professionals: Trauma can be caused by a wide range of events, but there are a few general aspects .There is, putting the person in a state of tremendous puzzlement and lack of confidence. Psychological trauma may accompany physical trauma or exist seperately of it. The usual causes and dangers of psychological trauma are sexual abuse , domestic violence, being the victim of an alcoholic parent, particularly in childhood. Long-term exposure to situation such; as extreme poverty or milder forms of abuse, such as verbal abuse, can be traumatic. Psychological trauma may happen during a single traumatic event or as a result of repeated (chronic) exposure to overwhelming stress (Terr, 1992). Children exposed to chronic trauma normally have considerably worse effect than those exposed to severe accidental traumas. In addition, the failure of caregivers to satisfactorily protect a child may be experienced as betrayal and further supply to the adversity of the experience and effects of trauma. Acute psychological trauma causes impairment of the neuroendocrine systems in the body. excessive stress triggers the fight or flight survival response, which activate the sympathetic and suppresses the parasympathetic nervous system. Fight or flight responses increase cortisol levels in the central nervous system, which enable the individual to take action to survive (either dissociation, hyperarousal or both), but which at extreme levels can cause alterations in brain development and damage of brain cells. In children, high levels of cort isol can disrupt cell differentiation, cell migration and critical aspects of central nervous system integration and functioning. Trauma affects basic regulatory processes in the brain stem, the limbic brain (emotion, memory, regulation of arousal and affect), the neocortex (perception of self and the world) as well as integrative functioning across various systems in the central nervous system. Traumatic experiences are stored in the childs body/mind, and fear, arousal and dissociation associated with the original trauma may continue after the threat of danger . Development of the capacity to control affect may be destabilized or disrupted by trauma, and children exposed to severe or chronic trauma may demonstrate symptoms of mood swings, impulsivity, emotional irritability, anger and aggression, anxiety, depression and dissociation. Early trauma, mainly trauma at the hands of a caregiver, can distinctly modify a childs perception of self, trust in others and perception of the world. Children who experience severe early trauma often develop a foreshortened sense of the future. They come to anticipate that life will be dangerous, that they may not survive,and as a result, they give up hope and expectations for themselves that reach into the future (Terr, 1992). Among the most demoralizing effects of early trauma is the disruption of the childs individuation and differentiation of a separate sense of self. Disintegration of the developing self occurs in response to stress that overwhelms the childs limited capacities for self regulation. Survival becomes the focus of the childs interactions and activities and adapting to the demands of their environment takes priority. Traumatized children lose themselves in the course of handling with ongoing threats to their survivalà Ã‚ ¾they cannot afford to trust, relax or fully look at their own feelings, ideas or interests. Characterlogical development is shaped by the childs experiences in early relationships (Johnson, 1987). Young trauma victims often come to believe there is something naturally wrong with them, that they are at fault, unlovable, hateful,helpless and unworthy of protection and love. Such feelings lead to poor selfimage, self abandonment, and self destructiveness. Eventually, these feelings may create a victim state of body mind spirit that leaves the child/adult vulnerable to subsequent trauma and revictimization. Acute trauma in early childhood affects all area of development, including cognitive, social, emotional, physical, psychological and moral development. The pervasive negative effects of early trauma result in significantly higher levels of behavioral and emotional problems among abused children than non-abused children.In addition, children exposed to early trauma due to abuse or neglect lag behind in school readiness and school performance, they have diminished cognitive abilities, and many go on to develop substance abuse problems, health problems and serious mental health disorders. Serious emotional and behavioral difficulties include depression, anxiety, aggression, conduct disorder, sexualized behavior, eating disorders,somatization and substance abuse. Early childhood trauma contributes to negative outcomes in adolescence, including dropping out of school, substance abuse, and early sexual activity, increasing the occurrence of sexually transmitted diseases, early pregnancies and premature parenting. Early childhood trauma contributes to adverse adult outcomes as well, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, health (Harris, Putnam Fairbank,2004). Although the effects of child abuse and neglect vs. family environmental and genetic factors have been debated, recent twin studies confirm a significant causal relationship between child abuse and major psychopathology (Kendler, Bulik, Silberg,Hettema, Myers Prescott, 2000). Acute trauma in early childhood seems to set in motion a chain of events , a negative path that places those children who have the highest exposure and a less positive mediating or ameliorating factors at greatest risk of significant debilitating effect on development and increased occurrence of psychopathology (Perry, 1997, 1999, 2001à Ã‚ ¾ Eth Pynoos, 1985à Ã‚ ¾ Pynoos, 1994). The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (1998)carried a study where researchers mailed questionnaires to over 13,000 people who had freshly had medical workups at the Southern California Permanente Groupin San Diego. These patients were asked about their experiences with any of seven categories of childhood trauma: psychological, physical, or sexual abuseà Ã‚ ¾ violence against the motherà Ã‚ ¾ or living with household members who had problems with substance abuse, mental illness, were ever imprisoned or committed suicide. Over 9,000 patients responded. Among those who reported even one such exposure, there were substantial increases in a awful range of disorders, together with substance abuse, depression, suicide, and sexual promiscuity, as well as increased incidences of heart disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, extreme obesity, skeletal fractures and liver disease. In summary, experience to extreme traumatic stress affects people at many levels of functioning; somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral (e.g., vander Kolk, 1988à Ã‚ ¾ Kroll, Habenicht, McKenzie, 1989à Ã‚ ¾ Cole Putnam, 1992à Ã‚ ¾ Herman,1992b, van der Kolk et al., 1993). Childhood trauma sets the stage for a variety of disorders, such Post traumatic stress disorders,eating disorder,Attention deficient hyperactivity disorder,oppositional defiant disorder,pervasive disorder,attachment disorder.(Herman, Perry, van derKolk, 1989à Ã‚ ¾ Ogata, Silk, Goodrick, Lohr, Westen Hill, 1989 3.4 Disorders with the Foster Child The Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study (2012) on foster care children showed that foster care children, were found to have double the incidence of depression, and were found to have a higher rate of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans. In long term the foster care children suffer from psychopathology and cognitive disorders. 3.4.1 Psychopathology Disorders with Child According to Barkley and Mash (1996), child psychopathology is the manifestation of psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Some examples of psychopathology are post traumatic stress, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and pervasive developmental disorders. 3.4.1.1 Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Cash (2006) states that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an emotional illness that that is classified as an anxiety disorder and usually develops as a result of a terribly frightening, life-threatening, or otherwise highly unsafe experience. PTSD victims re-experience the traumatic event or events in some way, tend to avoid places, people, or other things that remind them of the event , and are exquisitely sensitive to normal life experiences (hyperarousal). According to Dubber (1999) 60% of children in foster care who were sexually abused had post traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD). 18% of children who were not abused faced PTSD just by witnessing violence at home. The symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder are tabulated below Table 3. 1 Symptoms Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Re-experiencing the Traumatic event Avoidance and Numbing Increased Anxiety and Emotional Arousal Intrusive, upsetting memories of the event Avoiding activities, places, thoughts, or feelings that remind you of the trauma Difficulty falling or staying asleep Flashbacks (acting or feeling like the event is happening again) Inability to remember important aspects of the trauma Irritability or outbursts of anger Nightmares (either of the event or of other frightening things) Loss of interest in activities and life in general Difficulty concentrating Feelings of intense distress when reminded of the trauma Feeling detached from others and emotionally numb Hypervigilance (on constant red alert) Intense physical reactions to reminders of the event (e.g. pounding heart, rapid breathing, nausea, muscle tension, sweating Sense of a limited future (you dont expect to live a normal life span, get married, have a career) Feeling jumpy and easily startled Intrusive, upsetting memories of the event Avoiding activities, places, thoughts, or feelings that remind you of the trauma 3.4.1.2 Attention Deficient Hyper Activity Disorder Millichap (2010) , defines attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a psychiatric disorder and it is characterized by either significant difficulties of inattention or hyperactivity and impulsiveness or a combination of the two. ADHD impacts school-aged children and results in restlessness, acting impulsively, and lack of focus which impairs their ability to learn properly. It is the most commonly studied and diagnosed psychiatric disorder in children, affecting about 3 to 5 percent of children globally. Robin (1998) has listed some of the symptoms of Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder are inattention, hyperactivity, disruptive behavior and impulsivity. Academic difficulties are also common signs of ADHD. According to Ramsay et al (2008), the symptom categories yield three potential classifications of ADHD-predominantly inattentive type, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type, or combined type if criteria for both subtypes are met. The table below shows the Attention Deficient Hyper Activity Disorder Symptoms Predominantly inattentive Symptoms Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive Symptoms Impulsivity Symptoms Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, Fidget and squirm in their seats Be very impatient Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task Talk nonstop Blurt out inappropriate comments, show their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless doing something enjoyable Dash around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new or trouble completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g., pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities Have trouble sitting still during dinner, school, and story time Not seem to listen when spoken to Be constantly in motion Daydream, become easily confused, and move slowly Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others Fidget and squirm in their seats Struggle to follow instructions 3.4.1.3 Oppositional defiant disorder Matthys W Lochman J (2010), defines oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) as an ongoing pattern of anger guided disobedience, hostilely defiant behavior toward authority figures which goes beyond the bounds of normal childhood behavior. People may appear very stubborn and often angry. Freeman et al (2006), also listed some common features of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) as persistent anger, frequent temper tantrums or angry outbursts and well as disregard for authority. Children and adolescents with ODD often purposely annoy others, blame others for their own mistakes, and are easily disturbed. The table below shows the signs and symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder. Signs and Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (lasting at least 6 months, during which four or more are present) Symptoms often loses temper often argues with adults often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults requests or rules often deliberately annoys people often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior is often touchy or easily annoyed by others is often angry and resentful is often spiteful or vindictive 3.4.1.4 Pervasive Developmental Disorder Waltz M (2003), defines Pervasive developmental disorders,( PDDP, as a group of conditions that involve delays in the development of many basic skills, most notably the ability to socialize with others, to communicate, and to use imagination. Malmone Quinn (2004) also states that these conditions are usually identified in children around 3 years of age a critical period in a childs development. Although the condition begins far earlier than 3 years of age, parents often do not notice the problem until the child is a toddler who is not walking, talking, or developing as well as other children of the same age and four types of Pervasive Development Disorders have been identified; Autism, Apergers Syndrome, Childhood disintegrative disorder and Retts syndrome. According to Volkmar (2007), children with autism have problems with social interaction, pretend play, and communication. They also have a limited range of activities and interests. Many (nearly 75%) of children with autism also have some degree of mental retardation. Malonne Quinn (2004), stated that children with Aspergers syndrome have difficulty with social interaction and communication, and have a narrow range of interests. However, children with Aspergers have average or above average intelligence, and develop normally in the areas of language and cognition (the mental processes related to thinking and learning). Volkmar (2007) also stated that children with Aspergers often also have difficulty concentrating and may have poor coordination. Waltz (2003) stated that children with Childhood disintegrative disorder begin their development normally in all areas, physical and mental. At some point, usually between 2 and 10 years of age, a child with this illness loses many of the skills he or she has developed. In addition to the loss of social and language skills, a child with disintegrative disorder may lose control of other functions, including bowel and bladder control. According to Goldstein Reynolds (2011), Children suffering from Retts Syndrome which is a very rare disorder have the symptoms associated with a PDD and also suffer problems with physical development. They generally suffer the loss of many motor or movement skills such as walking and use of their hands and develop poor coordination. This condition has been linked to a defect on the X chromosome, so it almost always affects girls. The table below summarises the General Symptoms in Pervasive Developmental Disorders General Symptoms in Pervasive Developmental Disorders Difficulty with verbal communication, including problems using and understanding language Difficulty with non-verbal communication, such as gestures and facial expressions Difficulty with social interaction, including relating to people and to his or her surroundings Unusual ways of playing with toys and other objects Difficulty adjusting to changes in routine or familiar surroundings Repetitive body movements or patterns of behavior, such as hand flapping, spinning, and head banging Changing response to sound; the child may be very sensitive to some noises and seem to not hear others. Temper tantrums Difficulty sleeping Aggressive behaviour Fearfulness or anxiety Eating Disorders Hudson et al (2007) defines eating disorders refer to a group of conditions defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive food intake to the detriment of an individuals physical and mental health. According to Hadfield (2008), obesity in

Moby Dick or White Whale :: essays research papers

Ishmael, the narrator, announces his intent to ship aboard a whaling vessel. He has made several voyages as a sailor but none as a whaler. He travels to New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he stays in a whalers’ inn. Since the inn is rather full, he has to share a bed with a harpooner from the South Pacific named Queequeg. At first repulsed by Queequeg’s strange habits and shocking appearance, Ishmael eventually comes to appreciate the man’s generosity and kind spirit, and the two decide to seek work on a whaling vessel together.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They take a ferry to Nantucket, the traditional capital of the whaling industry. There they secure work on the Pequod, a savage-looking ship adorned with the bones and teeth of sperm whales. Peleg and Bildad, the Pequod’s Quaker owners, drive a hard bargain in terms of salary. They also mention the ship’s mysterious captain, Ahab, who is still recovering from losing his leg in an encounter with a sperm whale on his last voyage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Pequod leaves Nantucket on a cold Christmas Day with a crew made up of men from many different countries and races. Soon the ship is in warmer waters, and Ahab makes his first appearance on deck, balancing gingerly on his false leg, which is made from a sperm whale’s jaw. He announces his desire to pursue and kill Moby Dick, the legendary great white whale who took his leg, because he sees this whale as the embodiment of evil. Ahab nails a gold doubloon to the mast and declares that it will be the prize for the first man to sight the whale.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the Pequod sails toward the southern tip of Africa, whales are sighted and unsuccessfully hunted. During the hunt, a group of men, none of whom anyone on the ship’s crew has seen before on the voyage, emerges from the hold. The men’s leader is an exotic-looking man named Fedallah. These men constitute Ahab’s private harpoon crew, smuggled aboard in defiance of Bildad and Peleg. Ahab hopes that their skills and Fedallah’s prophetic abilities will help him in his hunt for Moby Dick.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Pequod rounds Africa and enters the Indian Ocean. A few whales are successfully caught and processed for their oil. From time to time, the ship encounters other whaling vessels. Ahab always demands information about Moby Dick from their captains. One of the ships, the Jeroboam, carries Gabriel, a crazed prophet who predicts doom for anyone who threatens Moby Dick.

Motiff of King Lear :: English Literature Essays

Motiff of King Lear One of the primary themes portrayed in "King Lear" is the harsh effects of betrayal by one's loved ones. Incorporated in this message is the fact that such betrayal can be avoided with sound judgment and temper, and with patience in all decisions. Shakespeare uses the motif of madness to aid in this message. Anger and insanity are coupled to illustrate the theme, and they both cloud the judgment of characters in various ways. A contrast between actual insanity and fabricated madness aids in the depiction of the main theme as well. King Lear's temper and madness in the form of anger are shown in Act I, when he is quick to banish Cordelia, under the false impression that she does not love him. Kent tries to warn him, and says "When Lear is mad, ... When majesty stoops to folly," implying that Lear's rage has blinded him from making the correct decision. Lear's anger is heightened when Goneril insults him and he decides to leave her castle. His anger consumes him until he is forced to scream to the skies, "O Let me not be mad... Keep me in temper." In Act II, after he is betrayed by Regan as well, he says to his servant, "O Fool, I shall go mad." He is saying that he is so overcome by pain that he will go mad, not knowing that, ironically, his anger will later transform into true insanity. Edgar offers a different pathway for the madness motif to unfold. In Act II, after fleeing Gloucester's castle, he decides to disguise himself as a beggar with no clothes and "lunatic bans." He pretends to be mad for the majority of the story and in another ironic twist, it is this so-called madman that actually brings many truths to light. Lear's madness begins to unfold in Act III. Kent notes in the shelter, that "his wits begin to unsettle." Scene IV is a blatant display of madness by Lear and the acting Edgar, who converse with each other in incoherent outbursts. Lear becomes more and more unstable as he uses two stools as models of his daughters and places them on trial for the crimes they have committed against him. In Act IV, Edgar is reunited with Gloucester, who thinks he is a madman. Edgar actually saves his father's life in this act, still pretending to be mad the entire time.

Pickwick Papers :: Free Essays Online

Pickwick Papers Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers Dickens’ first novel, originally titled The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, began as a concept first brought forth in the early part of the year 1836. It was at this time when Robert Seymour, an etcher and caricaturist of the day, approached publishers Chapman and Hall with his idea for a series of humorous sketches depicting the mannerisms and way of life of â€Å"Cockney amateurs on holiday in the field.† Seymour had already made a success of sketches that depicted similar subject matter, namely that of Cockney sports, and the follies of members of the fictional â€Å"Nimrod Club.† The publishers agreed to fund the project, under the condition that the sketches be accompanied by some literary commentary. Upon agreement, the publishers set out to find a writer and were turned down several times before they approached Charles Dickens, then a young journalist who had recently published a collection of his own called Sketches by Boz. His role , they informed him, would be to provide a text that was secondary and arising only from the sketches. At the time, Dickens, only twenty-three years old, was about to be married and was willing to take on the project as a means of earning some extra money. He showed his cunning even at that early age, though, when he convinced the publishers that there should be a shift in priorities, telling them that he believed that it would be â€Å"infinitely better for the plates to arise naturally out of the text† (Forster). He also informed the publishers that the original concept, which was to focus on Cockney Sportsmanship was a tired subject, that had been done all too often in the past, and he himself knew very little about the subject. Dickens then proposed to alter the concept and allow for a â€Å"freer range of English scenes and people – a panorama of rural England to complement his mainly urban Sketches by Boz† (Kinsley). On March 26, 1836, The Times announced that â€Å"on the 31st would be published the first shilling of the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, edited by Boz. Shortly after, that same publication announced that on April 2nd, Mr.